Allen, T. J., Sherman, J. W., Conrey, F. R., & Stroessner, S. J. (2009). Stereotype strength and attentional bias: Preference for confirming versus disconfirming information depends on processing capacity. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 45(5), 1081–1087. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JESP.2009.06.002
AMA (2017). Working together to end racial and ethnic disparities: One physician at a time kit. Retrieved from https://commerce.ama-assn.org/store/ui/catalog/productDetail?product_id=prod1240029&navAction=push
AMA Council on Ethical and Judicial Affairs (2010). AMA Code of Medical Ethics’ Opinion on Disparities in Health Care. Virtual Mentor, 12(10), 790-791. DOI: 10.1001/virtualmentor.2010.12.10.coet1-1010
Ames, D. (2009). Pushing up to a point: Assertiveness and effectiveness in leadership and interpersonal dynamics. Research in Organizational Behavior, 29, 111-133. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.riob.2009.06.010
Ames, D. R., & Flynn, F. J. (2007). What breaks a leader: The curvilinear relation between assertiveness and leadership. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92(2), 307-324. https://dx.doi/10.1037/0022-3514.92.2.307
Amodio, D. M. (2014). The neuroscience of prejudice and stereotyping. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 15(10), 670–682. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn3800
Baker, R. B. (2014). The American Medical Association and Race. AMA Journal of Ethics, 16(6), 479-488. doi: 10.1001/virtualmentor.2014.16.6.mhst1-1406
Banaji, M. R. (2013). Blindspot: Hidden biases of good people. New York, NY: Delacorte Press.
Barrett, L. F., & Bliss-Moreau, E. (2009). She’s emotional. He’s having a bad day: Attributional explanations for emotion stereotypes. Emotion, 9(5), 649-658. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0016821
Bearman, M., Palermo, C., Allen, L. M., & Williams, B. (2015). Learning empathy through simulation: a systematic literature review. Simulation in Healthcare, 10(5), 308-319. https://doi.org/ 10.1097/SIH.0000000000000113
Bell, J. G., & Perry, B. (2015). Outside looking in: The community impacts of anti-lesbian, gay, and bisexual hate crime. Journal of Homosexuality, 62(1), 98–120. https://doi.org/10.1080/00918369.2014.957133
Blodorn, A., O’Brien, L. T., Cheryan, S., & Vick, S. B. (2016). Understanding perceptions of racism in the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina: The roles of system and group justification. Social Justice Research, 29(2), 139–158. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11211-016-0259-9
Bruneau, E., Kteily, N., & Falk, E. (2018). Interventions highlighting hypocrisy reduce collective blame of Muslims for individual acts of violence and assuage anti-Muslim hostility. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 44(3), 430-448. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0146167217744197
Bugiardini, R., Navarro Estrada, J. L., Nikus, K., Hall, A. S., & Manfrini, O. (2010). Gender bias in acute coronary syndromes. Current Vascular Pharmacology, 8(2), 276-284.
Burgess, D. J., Beach, M. C., & Saha, S. (2017). Mindfulness practice: A promising approach to reducing the effects of clinician implicit bias on patients. Patient Education and Counseling, 100(2), 372-376. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pec.2016.09.005
Burgess, D. J., Van Ryn, M., Crowley-Matoka, M., & Malat, J. (2006). Understanding the provider contribution to race/ethnicity disparities in pain treatment: Insights from dual process models of stereotyping. Pain Medicine, 7(2), 119-134. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1526-4637.2006.00105.x
Chapman, E. N., Kaatz, A., & Carnes, M. (2013). Physicians and implicit bias: How doctors may unwittingly perpetuate health care disparities. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 28(11), 1504–1510. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11606-013-2441-1
Chiaramonte, G. R., & Friend, R. (2006). Medical students’ and residents’ gender bias in the diagnosis, treatment, and interpretation of coronary heart disease symptoms. Health Psychology, 25(3), 255-266. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0278-6133.25.3.255
Cleeland, C. S., Gonin, R., Baez, L., Loehrer, P., & Pandya, K. J. (1997). Pain and treatment of pain in minority patients with cancer: The Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group Minority Outpatient Pain Study. Annals of Internal Medicine, 127(9), 813-816. https://doi.org/ 10.7326/0003-4819-127-9-199711010-00006
Cohen, G. L., & Sherman, D. K. (2014). The psychology of change: Self-affirmation and social psychological intervention. Annual Review of Psychology, 65, 333–371.
Cooper, L. A., Roter, D. L., Carson, K. A., Beach, M. C., Sabin, J. A., Greenwald, A. G., & Inui, T. S. (2012). The associations of clinicians’ implicit attitudes about race with medical visit communication and patient ratings of interpersonal care. American Journal of Public Health, 102(5), 979-987. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2011.300558
Crilly, M. A., Bundred, P. E., Leckey, L. C., & Johnstone, F. C. (2008). Gender bias in the clinical management of women with angina: Another look at the Yentl Syndrome. Journal of Women’s Health, 17(3), 331–342. https://doi.org/10.1089/jwh.2007.0383
Crisp, R. J., Turner, R. N., & Hewstone, M. (2010). Common ingroups and complex identities: Routes to reducing bias in multiple category contexts. Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice, 14(1), 32-45. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0017303
Cruz-Flores, S., Rabinstein, A., Biller, J., Elkind, M. S., Griffith, P., Gorelick, P. B., … & Peterson, E. (2011). Racial-ethnic disparities in stroke care: The American experience: A statement for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association. Stroke, 42(7), 2091-2116. doi: 10.1161/STR.0b013e3182213e24
Dalbert, C. (2009). Belief in a just world. In M. R. Leary & R. H. Hoyle (Eds.), Handbook of Individual Differences in Social Behavior (pp. 288-297). New York: Guilford Publications.
Dasgupta, N. (2013). Implicit attitudes and beliefs adapt to situations: A decade of research on the malleability of implicit prejudice, stereotypes, and the self-concept. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 47, 233–279. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-407236-7.00005-X
Daugherty, S. L., Blair, I. V., Havranek, E. P., Furniss, A., Dickinson, L. M., Karimkhani, E., … Masoudi, F. A. (2017). Implicit gender bias and the use of cardiovascular tests among cardiologists. Journal of the American Heart Association, 6(12), 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1161/JAHA.117.006872
Dehon, E., Weiss, N., Jones, J., Faulconer, W., Hinton, E., & Sterling, S. (2017). A systematic review of the impact of physician implicit racial bias on clinical decision making. Academic Emergency Medicine, 24(8), 895-904. https://doi.org/ 10.1111/acem.13214
Dickman, S. L., Himmelstein, D. U., & Woolhandler, S. (2017). Inequality and the health-care system in the USA. The Lancet, 389(10077), 1431-1441. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(17)30398-7
Dovidio, J. F., Gaertner, S. L., & Pearson, A. R. (2017). Aversive racism and contemporary bias. In F. K. Barlow & C. G. Sibley (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook of the psychology of prejudice (pp. 267-294). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press
Dovidio, J. F., Kawakami, K., & Gaertner, S. L. (2002). Implicit and explicit prejudice and interracial interaction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82(1), 62-68. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.82.1.62
Evans, J. S. B. & Stanovich, K. E. (2013). Dual-process theories of higher cognition: Advancing the debate. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 8(3), 223-241. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1745691612460685
Fiscella, K., & Sanders, M. R. (2016). Racial and ethnic disparities in the quality of health care. Annual Review of Public Health, 37, 375-394. doi:.1146/annurev-publhealth-032315-021439
Fiske, S. T., Cuddy, A. J., & Glick, P. (2007). Universal dimensions of social cognition: Warmth and competence. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 11(2), 77-83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2006.11.005
FitzGerald C. & Hurst S. (2017). Implicit bias in healthcare professionals: A systematic review. BMC Medical Ethics, 18(1), 19. doi: 10.1186/s12910-017-0179-8.
Flint, S. W. (2015). Obesity stigma: Prevalence and impact in healthcare. British Journal of Obesity, 1(1), 14–18. https://doi.org/10.3109/13561820.2013.791671
Franssen, F. M. (2014). Overweight and obesity are risk factors for COPD misdiagnosis and overtreatment. Chest, 146(6), 1426-1428. https://doi.org/10.1378/chest.14-1308
Gordijn EH, Hindriks I, Koomen W, Dijksterhuis A, & Van Knippenberg A. (2004). Consequences of stereotype suppression and internal suppression motivation: a self-regulation approach. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 30(2), 212-224. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0146167203259935
Greenwood, B. N., Carnahan, S., & Huang, L. (2018). Patient–physician gender concordance and increased mortality among female heart attack patients. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 115(34), 8569-8574. DOI:10.1073/pnas.1800097115
Hafeez H, Zeshan M, Tahir MA, Jahan N, & Naveed S. (2017). Health care disparities among lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender youth: A literature review. Cureus, 9(4), e1184. doi: 10.7759/cureus.1184.
Hamberg, K. (2008). Gender bias in medicine. Women’s Health, 4(3), 237–243. https://doi.org/10.2217/17455057.4.3.237
Hamberg, K., Risberg, G., Johansson, E. E., & Westman, G. (2002). Gender bias in physicians’ management of neck pain: A study of the answers in a Swedish National Examination. Journal of Women’s Health & Gender-Based Medicine, 11(7), 653–666. https://doi.org/10.1089/152460902760360595
Hampton SB, Cavalier J, & Langford R. (2015). The influence of race and gender on pain management: A systematic literature review. Pain Management Nursing, 16(6), 968-77. doi: 10.1016/j.pmn.2015.06.009.
Hawkins, K. A., & Cougle, J. R. (2013). Effects of interpretation training on hostile attribution bias and reactivity to interpersonal insult. Behavior Therapy, 44(3), 479-488. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2013.04.005
Heilman, M. E., A. S. Wallen, D. Fuchs, and M. M. Tamkins. (2004). Penalties for success: Reactions to women who succeed at male gender‐typed tasks. Journal of Applied Psychology, 83(3), 416–427.
Hoyt, C. L. (2010). Women, men, and leadership: Exploring the gender gap at the top. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 4(7), 484-498.
Huizinga, M. M., Bleich, S. N., Beach, M. C., Clark, J. M., & Cooper, L. A. (2010). Disparity in physician perception of patients’ adherence to medications by obesity status. Obesity, 18(10), 1932-1937. https://doi.org/10.1038/oby.2010.35
Institute of Medicine. (2003). Unequal treatment: Confronting racial and ethnic disparities in health care. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. https://doi.org/10.17226/10260.
Jaffee, K. D., Shires, D. A., & Stroumsa, D. (2016). Discrimination and delayed health care among transgender women and men. Medical Care, 54(11), 1010–1016. https://doi.org/10.1097/MLR.0000000000000583
Johnson, T. J., Hickey, R. W., Switzer, G. E., Miller, E., Winger, D. G., Nguyen, M., … & Hausmann, L. R. (2016). The impact of cognitive stressors in the emergency department on physician implicit racial bias. Academic Emergency Medicine, 23(3), 297-305. https://doi.org/10.1111/acem.12901
Jordan, C. H., Spencer, S. J., & Zanna, M. P. (2005). Types of high self-esteem and prejudice: How implicit self-esteem relates to ethnic discrimination among high explicit self-esteem individuals. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31(5), 693-702. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0146167204271580
Jost, J. T., & Hunyady, O. (2003). The psychology of system justification and the palliative function of ideology. European Review of Social Psychology, 13(1), 111–153. https://doi.org/10.1080/10463280240000046
Kahneman, D. (2011). Thinking, Fast and Slow. New York, NY: Farrar, Straus and Giroux.
Kentner AC & Grace SL. (2017). Between mind and heart: Sex-based cognitive bias in cardiovascular disease treatment. Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology, 45, 18-24. doi: 10.1016/j.yfrne.2017.02.002.
Khubchandani JA, Shen C, Ayturk D, Kiefe CI, & Santry HP. (2018). Disparities in access to emergency general surgery care in the United States. Surgery, 163(2), 243-250. doi: 10.1016/j.surg.2017.07.026.
Kteily, N. S., & Bruneau, E. (2017). Darker demons of our nature: The need to (re) focus attention on blatant forms of dehumanization. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 26(6), 487-494. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0963721417708230
Lee, C., Ayers, S. L., & Kronenfeld, J. J. (2009). The association between perceived provider discrimination, healthcare utilization and health status in racial and ethnic minorities. Ethnicity & Disease, 19(3), 330–337. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19769017
Lee, P., Le Saux, M., Siegel, R., Goyal, M., Chen, C., Ma, Y., & Meltzer, A. C. (2019). Racial and ethnic disparities in the management of acute pain in US emergency departments: Meta-analysis and systematic review. The American Journal of Emergency Medicine. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.AJEM.2019.06.014
Macintyre S, Ford G, & Hunt K. (1999). Do women ‘over-report’ morbidity? Men’s and women’s responses to structured prompting on a standard question on long standing illness. Social Science & Medicine, 48(1), 89-98. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0277-9536(98)00292-5
Maina IW, Belton TD, Ginzberg S, Singh A, & Johnson TJ. (2018). A decade of studying implicit racial/ethnic bias in healthcare providers using the implicit association test. Social Science & Medicine, 199, 219-229. doi: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2017.05.009.
Maserejian, N. N., Link, C. L., Lutfey, K. L., Marceau, L. D., & McKinlay, J. B. (2009). Disparities in physicians’ interpretations of heart disease symptoms by patient gender: Results of a video vignette factorial experiment. Journal of Women’s Health, 18(10), 1661-1667. https://doi.org/10.1089/jwh.2008.1007
Minick, P., Clark, P. C., Dalton, J. A., Horne, E., Greene, D., & Brown, M. (2012). Long-bone fracture pain management in the emergency department. Journal of Emergency Nursing, 38(3), 211–217. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JEN.2010.11.001
Montoya, R. M., Horton, R. S., & Kirchner, J. (2008). Is actual similarity necessary for attraction? A meta-analysis of actual and perceived similarity. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 25(6), 889-922. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0265407508096700
Nickerson, R. S. (1998). Confirmation bias: A ubiquitous phenomenon in many guises. Review of General Psychology, 2(2), 175-220.
Nowrouzi, B. (2015). Weight bias in the workplace: A literature review. Occupational Medicine & Health Affairs, 3(3), 1-10. https://doi.org/10.4172/2329-6879.1000206
Okimoto, T. G., & Brescoll, V. L. (2010). The price of power: Power seeking and backlash against female politicians. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 36(7), 923-936. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0146167210371949
Oksuzyan A, Dańko MJ, Caputo J, Jasilionis D, & Shkolnikov VM. (2019). Is the story about sensitive women and stoical men true? Gender differences in health after adjustment for reporting behavior. Social Science & Medicine, 228, 41-50. doi: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2019.03.002.
Oliver, M. B., Jackson, R. L., Moses, N. N., & Dangerfield, C. L. (2004). The face of crime: Viewers’ memory of race-related facial features of individuals pictured in the news. Journal of Communication, 54(1), 88–104. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2004.tb02615.x
Olson, M. A., & Fazio, R. H. (2004). Trait inferences as a function of automatically activated racial attitudes and motivation to control prejudiced reactions. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 26(1), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15324834basp2601_1
Payne, J. S. (2012). Influence of race and symptom expression on clinicians’ depressive disorder identification in African American men. Journal of the Society for Social Work and Research, 3(3), 162–177. https://doi.org/10.5243/jsswr.2012.11
Pearson, A. R., Dovidio, J. F., & Gaertner, S. L. (2009). The nature of contemporary prejudice: Insights from Aversive Racism. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 3(3), 314–338. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9004.2009.00183.x
Penner LA, Blair IV, Albrecht TL, Dovidio JF.(2014). Reducing racial health care disparities: A social psychological analysis. Policy Insights from the Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 1(1), 204-212. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F2372732214548430
Penner, L. A., Dovidio, J. F., Gonzalez, R., Albrecht, T. L., Chapman, R., Foster, T., … & Gadgeel, S. (2016). The effects of oncologist implicit racial bias in racially discordant oncology interactions. Journal of Clinical Oncology, 34(24), 2874-2880. https://doi.org/10.1200/JCO.2015.66.3658
Penner, L. A., Dovidio, J. F., West, T. V., Gaertner, S. L., Albrecht, T. L., Dailey, R. K., & Markova, T. (2010). Aversive racism and medical interactions with Black patients: A field study. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 46(2), 436-440. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2009.11.004
Penner, L. A., Gaertner, S., Dovidio, J. F., Hagiwara, N., Porcerelli, J., Markova, T., & Albrecht, T. L. (2013). A social psychological approach to improving the outcomes of racially discordant medical interactions. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 28(9), 1143-1149. https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11606-013-2339-y
Persky, S., & Eccleston, C. P. (2011). Medical student bias and care recommendations for an obese versus non-obese virtual patient. International Journal of Obesity, 35(5), 728-735. https://doi.org/10.1038/ijo.2010.173
Pettigrew, T. F. (2001). The ultimate attribution error: Extending Allport’s cognitive analysis of prejudice. In M. A. Hogg & D. Abrams (Eds.), Key readings in social psychology. Intergroup relations: Essential readings (pp. 162-173). New York, NY: Psychology Press.
Phelan, S. M., Burgess, D. J., Yeazel, M. W., Hellerstedt, W. L., Griffin, J. M., & van Ryn, M. (2015). Impact of weight bias and stigma on quality of care and outcomes for patients with obesity. Obesity Reviews, 16(4), 319-326. https://doi.org/10.1111/obr.12266
Puhl, R., & Brownell, K. D. (2001). Bias, discrimination, and obesity. Obesity Research, 9(12), 788–805. https://doi.org/10.1038/oby.2001.108
Puhl, R., Wharton, C., & Heuer, C. (2009). Weight bias among dietetics students: Implications for treatment practices. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 109(3), 438-444. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jada.2008.11.034
Reeves, A. N. (2014). Written in Black & White: Exploring confirmation bias is racialized perceptions of writing skills (Nextions Yellow Paper Series 2014-0404). Nextions: Chicago, IL. Retrieved from http://nextions.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/written-in-black-and-white-yellow-paper-series.pdf
Rhodin, A. (2006). The rise of opiophobia: Is history a barrier to prescribing?. Journal of Pain & Palliative Care Pharmacotherapy, 20(3), 31-32. https://doi.org/10.1080/J354v20n03_07
Rudman, L. A., & Kilianski, S. E. (2000). Implicit and explicit attitudes toward female authority. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 26(11), 1315-1328. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0146167200263001
Rudman, L. A., & Phelan, J. E. (2010). The effect of priming gender roles on women’s implicit gender beliefs and career aspirations. Social Psychology, 41(3), 192-202. DOI: 10.1027/1864-9335/a000027
Sabin, J. A., & Greenwald, A. G. (2012). The influence of implicit bias on treatment recommendations for 4 common pediatric conditions: Pain, urinary tract infection, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, and asthma. American Journal of Public Health, 102(5), 988-995. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2011.300621
Schultz, J. R., & Maddox, K. B. (2013). Shooting the messenger to spite the message? Exploring reactions to claims of racial bias. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 39(3), 346-358. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0146167212475223
Scroggins, W. A., Mackie, D. M., Allen, T. J., & Sherman, J. W. (2016). Reducing prejudice with labels: Shared group memberships attenuate implicit bias and expand implicit group boundaries. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 42(2), 219-229. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0146167215621048
Sherman, D. K. (2013). Self‐affirmation: Understanding the effects. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 7(11), 834-845. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12072
Strack, F., & Deutsch, R. (2004). Reflective and impulsive determinants of social behavior. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 8(3), 220–247. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327957pspr0803_1
Todd, A. R., Bodenhausen, G. V, Richeson, J. a, & Galinsky, A. D. (2011). Perspective taking combats automatic expressions of racial bias. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 100(6), 1027–1042. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022308
Van Ryn, M., Burgess, D. J., Dovidio, J. F., Phelan, S. M., Saha, S., Malat, J., … & Perry, S. (2011). The impact of racism on clinician cognition, behavior, and clinical decision making. Du Bois Review: Social Science Research on Race, 8(1), 199-218. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1742058X11000191
Vorauer, J. D., & Turpie, C. A. (2004). Disruptive effects of vigilance on dominant group members’ treatment of outgroup members: Choking versus shining under pressure. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 87(3), 384-399. https://doi.org/ 10.1037/0022-3514.87.3.384
Vorauer, J. D., Gagnon, A., & Sasaki, S. J. (2009). Salient intergroup ideology and intergroup interaction. Psychological Science, 20(7), 838-845. https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1467-9280.2009.02369.x
Wheeler SM & Bryant AS. (2017). Racial and ethnic disparities in health and health care. Obstetrics and Gynecology Clinics, 44(1), 1-11. doi: 10.1016/j.ogc.2016.10.001.
Williams, D., Bennett, K., & Feely, J. (2003). Evidence for an age and gender bias in the secondary prevention of ischaemic heart disease in primary care. British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology, 55(6), 604–608. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2125.2003.01795.x
Yee, L. M., & Simon, M. A. (2011). Perceptions of coercion, discrimination and other negative experiences in postpartum contraceptive counseling for low-income minority women. Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved, 22(4), 1387–1400. https://doi.org/10.1353/hpu.2011.0144
Zeidan, F., Johnson, S. K., Diamond, B. J., David, Z., & Goolkasian, P. (2010). Mindfulness meditation improves cognition: Evidence of brief mental training. Consciousness and Cognition, 19(2), 597-605. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.concog.2010.03.014